ESS 6.3.1 Global Action on Climate Change

Learning Objectives

Outline the coordinated frameworks and roles of the global action on climate change by IGOs
Outline the alleviation of climate change strategies in terms of
Describe the adaption strategies in climate change

Abstract

To mitigate the risk of catastrophic climate change, coordinated global action is both necessary and ongoing. For over three decades, the United Nations (UN) has played a central role in urging national governments to implement measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Although many nations have undertaken efforts to curb their emissions, the pace of progress varies considerably across countries. Reductions achieved by states with the largest carbon footprints are expected to yield the greatest global impact; however, collective and individual actions at all scales remain essential to achieving meaningful climate outcomes.

Coordinated Frameworks

The Rio Conventions

At the 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, governments established three interrelated “Rio Conventions” to address the interconnected global challenges of climate change, desertification, and biodiversity loss. These include:

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), also referred to as UN Climate Change;
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), also known as UN Biodiversity; and
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

Together, these conventions form the foundation of international environmental governance, each addressing a key dimension of sustainable development.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The principal objective of the UNFCCC and its associated agreements is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. This stabilization should occur within a timeframe that allows ecosystems to adapt naturally and enables sustainable economic and social development. The UNFCCC currently enjoys near-universal participation, with 199 ratifying parties collectively known as the Parties to the Convention.

Annual Conferences of the Parties (COP) convene to assess progress and negotiate new commitments under the Convention. The 28th session (COP 28) was held in Dubai in 2023. Since its entry into force on 21 March 1994, the UNFCCC has served as the foundational treaty for subsequent agreements, most notably the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015). The central aim of the Paris Agreement is to limit the rise in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and preferably to 1.5°C.

The Kyoto Protocol

Adopted on 11 December 1997 and entering into force on 16 February 2005, the Kyoto Protocol represented the first legally binding international agreement to set quantified emission reduction targets. It imposed obligations primarily on developed countries—acknowledging their historical responsibility for elevated GHG levels—and established binding targets for 37 industrialized nations and the European Union, as outlined in Annex B. Collectively, these commitments aimed to achieve an average 5% reduction in emissions relative to 1990 levels during the first commitment period (2008–2012).

The Protocol also introduced international emissions trading mechanisms, allowing states to meet their targets more flexibly through market-based exchanges of emission allowances.

In 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Doha, Qatar, extending the commitment period to 2020. It established a legally binding goal for participating industrialized countries to reduce GHG emissions by 18% compared to 1990 levels. The Amendment officially entered into force in 2020 after securing ratification from the requisite minimum of 144 Parties.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the United Nations and the World Meteorological Organization to provide policymakers with authoritative scientific assessments on the state of knowledge concerning climate change. With 195 member states, the IPCC has produced six comprehensive assessment reports to date, synthesizing research across physical science, impacts, adaptation, and mitigation.

According to Christiana Figueres, former Executive Secretary of the UN Climate Change Secretariat, future international agreements must prioritize collaboration over punitive enforcement to ensure widespread participation and effective action. Critics, however, argue that the absence of legally binding enforcement mechanisms weakens the Paris Agreement and risks rendering it a symbolic addition to the existing corpus of over 500 global and regional environmental treaties. They caution that without stronger compliance measures, the world may fail to contain the rise in global temperatures within the UN’s 2°C threshold, thereby intensifying the risks of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves.

Even within the European Union—traditionally a strong advocate for binding commitments—there is a growing shift toward a “pledge and review” framework. Under this model, national commitments are periodically reassessed, typically every five years, to align with the long-term goal of reducing global emissions by half by 2050.

Strategies to Alleviate Climate Change

Efforts to address climate change can be broadly categorised into two approaches: mitigation, which aims to reduce its causes and impacts, and adaptation, which focuses on adjusting to its effects. In practice, both strategies are often pursued concurrently. There are three principal responses available to policymakers and societies when confronting climate change

to take no action,
to adopt a “wait-and-see” approach, or
to implement precautionary measures immediately.

While scientific research cannot provide absolute certainty regarding the precise outcomes or timeline of global warming, it can offer empirical evidence and probabilistic projections based on current data. The interpretation of such evidence is influenced by a combination of factors, including individual perspectives, scientific consensus, economic considerations, and political priorities.

Over time, a strong consensus has emerged within the scientific community that the evidence for anthropogenic climate change is both robust and compelling. Although scientists have warned of these risks for several decades, the recognition of the urgency of the issue among policymakers has been comparatively slow to develop.

The Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle—the notion that action should be taken in the face of uncertainty to prevent potential harm—represents the predominant approach to climate policy. This principle advocates for immediate intervention rather than delaying action until scientific certainty is absolute.

The primary limitation of the “wait-and-see” strategy lies in the protracted timeframe required for policy measures to yield tangible results. Transitioning the global economy away from dependence on fossil fuels is an inherently gradual process that entails structural and economic challenges. Some critics have historically argued that such disruptions are unwarranted. However, continued inaction risks the world reaching a tipping point, beyond which feedback mechanisms could accelerate climate change to a new equilibrium—potentially up to 8°C warmer than current levels—where mitigation efforts may become ineffective. Consequently, proactive measures are widely regarded as preferable to delayed responses.

Precautionary actions can be implemented across three key domains: international commitments, national policy initiatives, and individual lifestyle adaptations. Collectively, these approaches embody a comprehensive framework for minimizing climate-related risks and fostering sustainable development.

Decarbonization

Decarbonization refers to the process of restructuring economic and social systems to both reduce carbon emissions and enhance carbon sequestration within natural sinks such as soil and vegetation. Achieving meaningful decarbonization necessitates a fundamental transformation of the current growth-oriented economic model, requiring shifts in energy generation, infrastructure, transportation, and land resource management. This transformation entails either a significant reduction in consumption or a widespread transition toward low-emission technologies and renewable energy sources.

Key strategies for decarbonization include:

Transitioning to low-carbon electricity systems by reducing carbon intensity (i.e., the amount of carbon produced per unit of energy). This can be achieved through:
- Expanding the use of renewable energy sources;
- Increasing reliance on nuclear energy; and
- Replacing coal with natural gas, which emits comparatively lower levels of CO₂ per unit of energy.
Electrifying transport systems and reducing dependence on fossil-fuel-powered vehicles. Although some sectors, such as transport, pose greater challenges to decarbonization, technological innovation and policy incentives can facilitate this transition.
Developing affordable, low-carbon energy and storage technologies. Accelerating research and deployment in this area is essential to enable low-income countries (LICs) to bypass high-carbon development trajectories. To achieve global progress, low-carbon energy must become cost-competitive and the default choice for development.
Enhancing energy efficiency across all sectors to minimize waste and optimize energy use.

Reducing Emissions from Food Production

The agricultural and food sectors are significant contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing emissions in this area requires both systemic and behavioral changes, particularly in consumption patterns and production practices.

Key measures include:

Reducing meat and dairy consumption, especially in high-income countries (HICs). Transitioning to lower-carbon dietary patterns involves decreasing the consumption of meat and dairy products and substituting high-impact meats (such as beef and lamb) with alternatives like poultry, fish, or eggs. The adoption of meat substitutes and plant-based diets, including vegetarian and vegan options, also contributes to emission reductions.
Promoting lower-carbon meat and dairy production systems, such as grass-fed livestock farming, rather than intensive feedlot-based production.
Improving crop yields through sustainable intensification—producing more food on less land—to reduce pressure on forests and natural ecosystems. Emerging approaches such as vertical farming and hydroponic cultivation exemplify innovative, space-efficient agricultural methods.
Reducing food waste across the supply chain. Approximately one-third of food-related emissions result from food that is lost during production, storage, and transport, or wasted by consumers. Enhancing harvest management, storage infrastructure, transport logistics, and consumer awareness can significantly reduce overall emissions.

Adaptation Strategies

Adaptation strategies aim to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change while enhancing any potential benefits. These measures are designed to reduce the vulnerability of both natural and human systems to current or anticipated climate effects. The ability to implement such strategies depends on the adaptive capacity of a country, industry, organization, or individual, which is determined by the availability of technological, financial, and institutional resources, as well as political and social will. High-income countries (HICs) can support low-income countries (LICs) in building adaptive capacity, facilitating the design and implementation of effective strategies to reduce climate-related damages.

Key adaptation measures include:

1. Land Use Planning

Restrict construction in floodplains and low-lying areas through legislative measures.

2. Flood-Resistant Infrastructure

Design water catchment systems and run-off management to minimize flooding.
Construct buildings on stilts or with flood-tolerant ground floors, reducing potential damage.

3. Agricultural Adaptation

Implement efficient irrigation systems in drought-prone areas.
Store rainwater to buffer against periods of water scarcity.
Develop and cultivate drought-tolerant crop varieties.
Shift crop types to suit changing climatic conditions.

4. Weather and Ecosystem Management

Employ cloud seeding techniques to enhance rainfall.
Plant trees to influence local precipitation patterns.

5. Migration and Public Health Measures

Facilitate migration to less vulnerable areas where necessary.
Implement vaccination programs against water-borne diseases, such as typhoid.

6. Water Resource Management

Utilize desalination plants to supplement freshwater supplies.
Improve rainwater harvesting and runoff collection systems.
Expand reservoir capacity.
Explore innovative techniques, such as harvesting water from clouds.

Some strategies provide both mitigation and adaptation benefits. For example, green roofs reduce atmospheric CO₂ levels (mitigation) while simultaneously cooling buildings naturally (adaptation).