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Author: Peter M.K.H JAMAL

  • Chemistry S3.1.6 [AHL] Transition Metals

    Chemistry S3.1.6 [AHL] Transition Metals

    Learning Objectives Part 1: The First Row of d-Block The electron configurations of the elements in the first row of the d-block are summarised in the table below. Notably, chromium (half d for Cr) and copper (full d for Cu) exhibit unusual electron configurations. Atomic Radii As the inner d-sublevel fills across the series, these…

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  • Chemistry S3.1.5 Oxidation States

    Chemistry S3.1.5 Oxidation States

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Oxidation States of Elements, Ions and Compounds Rule Description Example 1 Atoms in their free (uncombined) elemental state have an oxidation state of zero. The oxidation states of Mg, O₂, N₂, and Ar are all 0. 2 In simple ions, the oxidation state is the same as the charge on the…

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  • Biology B1.2.2 [AHL] Proteins Structures

    Biology B1.2.2 [AHL] Proteins Structures

    Learning Objectives Part 1: The R Group of Amino Acids The 20 amino acids used by ribosomes to form polypeptides vary significantly in the chemical nature of their R-groups. When amino acids link into a polypeptide, their amine and carboxyl groups form peptide bonds, leaving a free amine group (–NH₂) at one end and a…

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  • Chemistry S3.1.4 Acid Rain and Ocean Acidification

    Chemistry S3.1.4 Acid Rain and Ocean Acidification

    Learning Objective Part 1: Formation of Acid Rain Summary: Formation of Acid Rain Acid rain is caused by non-metal oxides, primarily sulfur oxides (SO₂, SO₃) and nitrogen oxides (NO, NO₂), which dissolve in rainwater to form acidic solutions. 1. Natural Acidity of Rainwater 2. Sulfur Oxides and Acid Rain 3. Nitrogen Oxides and Acid Rain…

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  • Chemistry S3.1.3 Metal and Nonmetal Oxides

    Chemistry S3.1.3 Metal and Nonmetal Oxides

    Learning Objective Part 1: The Bonding of Period 3 Oxides The transition from metallic to non-metallic character in period 3 oxides is reflected in their bonding. Metal oxides (Na to Al) form giant ionic structures, while non-metal oxides (phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine) are molecular covalent. Silicon, being a metalloid, forms a giant covalent oxide. The ionic…

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  • Biology B1.2.1 Proteins

    Biology B1.2.1 Proteins

    Learning Objectives Abstract:The diversity in protein form and function is fundamentally linked to the amino acid sequence of their polypeptides. The 20 chemically diverse amino acids can be arranged in countless sequences, analogous to letters forming words, though only a fraction of possible sequences occur in nature. The specific sequence of amino acids determines a…

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  • Chemistry S3.1.2 Chemical Properties of Halogens and Alkali Metals

    Chemistry S3.1.2 Chemical Properties of Halogens and Alkali Metals

    Learning Objectives Group 18: The Noble Gases To understand element reactivity, it is useful to examine Group 18, which consists of the least reactive elements—the noble gases. Elements in other groups exhibit reactivity due to their unstable, incomplete electron energy levels. They lose or gain electrons in order to attain the stable electron configuration of…

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  • Biology B1.1.3 Lipids and Phospholipids

    Biology B1.1.3 Lipids and Phospholipids

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Hydrophobic Properties Properties and Types Lipids are a diverse group of substances found in living organisms. They dissolve in non-polar solvents such as ethanol, toluene, and propanone (acetone). They are sparingly soluble in water-based (aqueous) solvents, making them hydrophobic. However, lipids are not repelled by water; they are simply more attracted…

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  • Biology B1.1.2 Carbohydrates

    Biology B1.1.2 Carbohydrates

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Structures Roles of Monosaccharides There are two type of glucose: alpha and beta. When becomes polymer, they form different structures Part 2: Polysaccharides 1. Polysaccharides as Energy Storage: Advantages of Starch & Glycogen: 2. Cellulose Part 3: Glycoproteins Role of Glycoproteins in Cell–Cell Recognition ABO Glycoproteins & Blood Transfusion

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  • Biology B1.1.1 Biological Macromolecules

    Biology B1.1.1 Biological Macromolecules

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Roles of Carbon in Biological Systems Part 2: Summary of macromolecules Part 3: Condensation and Hydrolysis The making of large polymers often requires condensation reaction. The breaking down of the large polymers would be the reverse of condensation reaction and this is called hydrolysis. Both ways usually require enzymes or other…

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  • Biology A1.2.4 [AHL] Further About DNA

    Biology A1.2.4 [AHL] Further About DNA

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Directionality of RNA and DNA Directionality of RNA and DNA in Enzymatic Processes Replication Transcription Translation Part 2: Maintaining DNA Helical Structure Purine-pyrimidine Chargaff’s rules Part 3: What are Nucleosomes? DNA is packed (condensed) in the nucleus in a form of chromosomes. To do this, the DNA must wrap around many…

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  • Biology A1.2.3 DNA as Universal Genetic Materials

    Biology A1.2.3 DNA as Universal Genetic Materials

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Importance of Base Complimentary Role of Complementary Base Pairing in DNA Replication and Gene Expression DNA Replication Gene Expression Part 2: DNA as Universal Genetic Materials Diversity of DNA Base Sequences and Limitless Information Storage Conservation of the Genetic Code and Universal Common Ancestry

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  • Biology A1.2.2 Structures of RNA and DNA

    Biology A1.2.2 Structures of RNA and DNA

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Condensation of Nucleotides Part 2: Structure and Roles of RNA Roles of RNA Part 3: Structure of DNA Structure of DNA as a Double Helix Part 4: Differences of DNA and RNA Ribose sugar is the sugar of RNA Deoxyribose sugar is the sugar of DNA

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  • Biology A1.2.1 Nucleotides Make Nucleic Acid

    Biology A1.2.1 Nucleotides Make Nucleic Acid

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Roles and Features of Nucleic Acids DNA as genetic materials for all living organisms Types of nucleic acids What are nucleotides? Part 2: DNA Backbone and Genetic Bases When there are many nucleotides linked together, they will look like a long strand of thread with the nitrogenous bases sticking out. This…

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  • Biology A1.1.2 Water on Earth and Beyond

    Biology A1.1.2 Water on Earth and Beyond

    Learning Objectives Part 1: Origin of Earth’s Water Earth’s Water Hypothesis of Earth’s Water Origin Part 2: Factors of Earth’s Water Retention Two key factors contributed to Earth’s ability to retain water after its delivery by asteroids: Part 3: Goldilocks Zone In the fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears, a young girl tries three…

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